Homo sociologicus, Homo oeconomicus, Zoon politikon
Sociology in simple language
🟢 BASIC LEVEL | Reading time: 30-45 minutes
Are You a Calculator, a Social Being, or a Political Animal?
Think about your last big decision.
Maybe you chose a university.
Or you picked a new job.
Or you decided where to live.
How did you decide?
Did you make a list of pros and cons?
Did you calculate costs and benefits?
That would be thinking like an economist.
Or did you ask your family?
Did you think about what others expect?
Did you choose what fits your role?
That would be thinking like a sociologist.
Or did you think about justice?
Did you ask what is right?
Did you consider the common good?
That would be thinking like a political philosopher.
The truth is: you probably did all three.
Humans are complex.
We calculate and care about others.
We follow rules and ask about justice.
But social scientists often use simple models.
These models help us understand behavior.
Today we look at three important models.
Three Ways to See Humans
Model 1: Homo Sociologicus — The Social Human
The German sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf created this model.
He lived from 1929 to 2009.
He asked: What makes humans social?
The main idea:
Humans play social roles.
Society gives us these roles.
We follow the rules of our roles.
Think of it like theater.
An actor gets a script.
The script tells them what to do.
The actor follows the script.
In society, you also have scripts.
Your role as a student has expectations.
Your role as a friend has rules.
Your role as a worker has norms.
Dahrendorf said: We are not completely free.
Society shapes our behavior.
We act according to our position.
📝 Mini-Summary: Homo sociologicus means humans follow social roles. Society gives us scripts for behavior. We act according to what is expected of us.
Model 2: Homo Oeconomicus — The Economic Human
This model comes from economics.
Many economists use it.
It is also called rational choice theory.
The main idea:
Humans are rational calculators.
We weigh costs and benefits.
We choose what gives us maximum benefit.
Imagine you want to buy coffee.
One shop charges 3 euros.
Another shop charges 5 euros.
The coffee is the same quality.
Homo oeconomicus would choose the cheaper shop.
Why? It saves 2 euros.
That is the rational choice.
This model assumes several things:
- Humans have clear preferences
- Humans have all the information they need
- Humans can calculate the best option
- Humans always choose the best option
Of course, real humans are not perfect calculators.
We make mistakes.
We have emotions.
We do not always have all information.
But the model is still useful.
It helps us predict behavior in many situations.
📝 Mini-Summary: Homo oeconomicus means humans calculate rationally. We weigh costs and benefits. We choose what gives us the most advantage.
Model 3: Zoon Politikon — The Political Animal
This is the oldest model.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle created it.
He lived from 384 to 322 before Christ.
That was over 2,300 years ago!
The main idea:
Humans are political by nature.
We need community to live well.
We care about the common good.
Aristotle said humans are different from animals.
Animals live together for survival.
Humans live together for the good life.
What does this mean?
We do not just want to survive.
We want justice.
We want fairness.
We want to live in a good society.
The philosopher Hannah Arendt built on this idea.
She lived from 1906 to 1975.
She said: Humans need public space.
We need to discuss together.
We need to make decisions together.
This model sees humans as citizens.
We participate in society.
We debate what is right.
We shape our community together.
📝 Mini-Summary: Zoon politikon means humans are political beings. We need community for the good life. We care about justice and the common good.
Examples from Real Life
Example 1: Choosing a University Major
Let us look at one decision three ways.
Imagine Anna chooses what to study.
As Homo Sociologicus:
Anna thinks about her family.
Her parents are both doctors.
Everyone expects her to study medicine.
Her social role is “doctor’s daughter.”
She feels pressure to continue the tradition.
So she chooses medicine to fulfill expectations.
As Homo Oeconomicus:
Anna makes a spreadsheet.
She compares different majors.
She looks at average salaries.
She checks job prospects.
She calculates costs of each program.
Computer science has the highest return on investment.
So she chooses computer science.
As Zoon Politikon:
Anna thinks about society.
She wants to help people.
She cares about justice.
She sees that education is unequal.
Many children do not have good teachers.
She wants to make a difference.
So she chooses to study education.
Same person, same decision.
But three completely different reasons!
Example 2: Social Media and Algorithms
Let us look at Instagram.
Why do people post photos?
The three models give different answers.
Homo Sociologicus view:
People follow social norms.
If your friends post vacation photos, you do too.
If influencers post selfies, you copy the style.
Social media creates new roles and expectations.
We perform our identity for others.
Homo Oeconomicus view:
People calculate: What gets the most likes?
Likes are social currency.
More likes mean more followers.
More followers can mean money or status.
People optimize their posts for maximum engagement.
Zoon Politikon view:
People use social media for political action.
They share information about injustice.
They organize protests.
They discuss important issues.
Social media creates a new public sphere.
What about algorithms?
Instagram uses AI to decide what you see.
The algorithm follows the homo oeconomicus model.
It calculates: What will keep this user engaged?
It shows you posts you will likely interact with.
The goal is to maximize your time on the app.
More time means more advertising revenue.
But this creates problems.
The algorithm might show you extreme content.
Why? Because extreme content gets more engagement.
This can harm society.
Example 3: Voting Behavior
Why do people vote for a political party?
Again, three models give three answers.
Homo Sociologicus:
People vote like their family and friends.
If you grow up in a conservative family, you vote conservative.
Social class shapes political identity.
Workers traditionally vote for left parties.
Business owners vote for right parties.
Homo Oeconomicus:
People vote for their economic interest.
Which party will lower my taxes?
Which party will increase my salary?
Voters are like consumers.
They shop for the best political deal.
Zoon Politikon:
People vote for their values.
Which party stands for justice?
Which party protects the environment?
Which party promotes equality?
Citizens care about the common good.
Not just about personal benefit.
Research shows all three matter.
Social background influences voting.
Economic interests play a role.
But values matter too.
Real voting behavior is complex.
Comparing the Three Models
| Aspect | Homo Sociologicus | Homo Oeconomicus | Zoon Politikon |
| Main Driver | Social roles and norms | Rational calculation | Common good and justice |
| Question Asked | What do others expect? | What benefits me most? | What is right and just? |
| Key Thinker | Ralf Dahrendorf | Many economists | Aristotle, Hannah Arendt |
| Strength | Explains why we conform | Explains economic choices | Explains political engagement |
| Limitation | Ignores individual choice | Ignores emotions and values | Hard to test empirically |
Which Model is Right?
The answer: All of them!
And none of them completely.
Remember: These are models.
Models simplify reality.
They help us understand patterns.
But real humans are more complex.
Think about yourself.
Sometimes you follow social expectations.
Sometimes you calculate costs and benefits.
Sometimes you act from moral conviction.
Different situations activate different parts of us.
Buying groceries? Probably homo oeconomicus.
At a family dinner? Probably homo sociologicus.
Voting? Maybe zoon politikon.
The best social science uses multiple models.
Each model shines a different light.
Together they give us a fuller picture.
📝 Final Summary: The three models are tools for understanding. Homo sociologicus focuses on social roles. Homo oeconomicus focuses on rational calculation. Zoon politikon focuses on political community. Real humans combine all three.
Glossary — Key Terms Explained
Homo Sociologicus: A model that sees humans as social beings. We follow the rules and expectations of our social roles. Like actors following a script.
Homo Oeconomicus: A model that sees humans as rational calculators. We weigh costs and benefits. We choose what gives us the most advantage.
Zoon Politikon: A model that sees humans as political beings. We need community. We care about justice and the common good. We participate in society.
Social Role: The position you have in society. Each role comes with expectations about how to behave. Example: student, friend, worker, parent.
Rational Choice: Making decisions by calculating what gives you the best outcome. You weigh the pros and cons. You choose the option with maximum benefit.
Common Good: What benefits everyone in society. Not just what benefits you personally. It includes justice, fairness, and shared well-being.
Norm: An unwritten rule in society. Most people follow norms. Example: Say “please” and “thank you.” Do not talk loudly on public transport.
Algorithm: A set of rules a computer follows. On social media, algorithms decide what posts you see. They try to maximize your engagement.
Exercises — Practice What You Learned
Time needed: About 45 minutes total
Exercise 1: Theoretical Reflection (15 minutes)
Think about a recent decision you made.
Write down:
- What was the decision?
- Did you think about social expectations? (Homo sociologicus)
- Did you calculate costs and benefits? (Homo oeconomicus)
- Did you think about what is right? (Zoon politikon)
- Which model explains your decision best?
Exercise 2: Qualitative Observation (15 minutes)
Watch people for 15 minutes.
This can be in a café, on campus, or on the street.
Observe:
- Do people follow social norms? Which ones?
- Do you see role conflicts? (Someone struggling between different expectations)
- Do you see calculated behavior? (People optimizing for something)
Write down two examples of each model in action.
Exercise 3: Analyze an Algorithm (15 minutes)
Pick a social media platform you use.
Examples: Instagram, TikTok, YouTube, Twitter/X
Answer these questions:
- What does the algorithm optimize for? (Engagement? Time spent? Clicks?)
- Which human model does the algorithm assume? (Hint: probably homo oeconomicus)
- How does this shape user behavior?
- What would the platform look like if it followed zoon politikon instead?
Questions to Think About
These questions have no simple answers.
They are meant to make you think deeper.
- Can we ever be completely free from social roles? Should we want to be?
- Is it selfish to act as homo oeconomicus? Or is it just being honest about human nature?
- How can we design technology that brings out our zoon politikon side?
- Do different cultures emphasize different models? (Are some societies more individualistic, others more collectivist?)
- Which model does artificial intelligence follow? Can AI ever be zoon politikon?
Recommended Reading
Works Cited in This Article
Dahrendorf, Ralf (1958). Homo Sociologicus. Köln: Westdeutscher Verlag.
This is the book that introduced the concept. In German. Quite academic.
Arendt, Hannah (1958). The Human Condition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Available in English. Arendt discusses political life and citizenship. Challenging but important.
Easy Introduction
Kahneman, Daniel (2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Why this book: Shows how humans are NOT perfect rational actors. Explains why homo oeconomicus is useful but limited. Easy to read. Full of interesting examples.
Sandel, Michael (2009). Justice: What’s the Right Thing to Do? New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Why this book: Great introduction to political philosophy. Shows the zoon politikon perspective. Very accessible. Based on his famous Harvard course.
For Deeper Study
Elster, Jon (1989). Nuts and Bolts for the Social Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Why this book: Compares rational choice theory with other approaches. Shows when each model works best. More academic but very clear. Good for students who want to go deeper into methodology.
Boudon, Raymond (2003). Beyond Rational Choice Theory. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 1-21.
Why this article: Academic paper that argues for using multiple models. Shows the limits of pure rational choice. Proposes a broader view of human action. Requires some background knowledge but very insightful.
— End of Article —
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